Candidate of Sciences
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Candidate of Sciences is a first post-graduate scientific degree in many of former Eastern Bloc countries, awarded for the original research that constitutes a significant contribution to a scientific field. The degree was first introduced in the USSR on January 13, 1934 by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. It should have corresponded to the Doctor of Philosophy degree (Ph.D.), existing in the USA, the United Kingdom and other countries.[1][2]
The highest attainable degree, one level higher than Candidate, is Doctor of Sciences, is roughly analogous to the Anglophone Doctor of Science degree.
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[edit] Procedure of Attaining the Degree
The work on a dissertation is commonly carried out during a postgraduate study period called aspirantura. It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a university) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the Academy of Sciences network). It may be also carried out without direct relation to Academia. In exceptional cases, the Candidate degree may be awarded on the strength of the published scientific works.
A necessary prerequisite is passing an examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in Scientific Communism. In post-Soviet Russia and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in Philosophy, and in Russia recently in History of science; in Ukraine it is still Philosophy.
Another requirement is related to the number of original scientific papers published and/or submitted: at least 2-3 papers of at least 1-2 printed pages (1 printed page is about 40000 characters); at least one paper should be in the journal listed by "VAK". [3]
The dissertation is presented (defended) at the accredited educational or scientific institutions before a committee called the Scientific Council or "nauchnyj sovet". The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and who have been selected and approved to serve on the Council. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the Commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references.
If the defense is successful (75% majority of votes by the secret ballot voting by the members of the Council), it is recommended and later must be approved by the central state-wide board called Higher Attestation Commission or "Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya" or VAK (or by similar authority in other applicable countries).[4]
[edit] Local Characteristics
[edit] 
Former Czechoslovakia
In Czechoslovakia, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences (Czech: Kаndidát věd, Slovak: Kаndidát vied), degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the Communist Putsch in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences and universities.
The abbreviation of the degree is CSc. (Latin: candidatus scientiarum), added behind the bearer's name and a comma.
There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.
- JUDr. (Latin: juris utriusque doctor, English: Doctor of Law, Czech: doktor práv, Slovak: doktor práv)
- PhDr. (Latin: philosophiae doctor, English: Doctor of Philosophy, Czech: doktor filosofie, Slovak: doktor filozofie)
- RNDr. (Latin: rerum naturalium doctor, English: Doctor of Natural Sciences, Czech: doktor přírodních věd, Slovak: doktor prírodných vied)
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Technically it is an extension of a master-like degree, always stated before names and awarded for elaborating a so called rigorous thesis and defending it at a viva voce (rigorous) exam. Unlike Ph.D., no post-graduate studies are required.
- MUDr. (Latin: medicinae universae doctor) is "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American MD, attained after 6-year university studies.
- RSDr. (Latin: rerum socialium doctor) was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) during the Communist era, who either or not "graduated" from the Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The leading subject taught was Marxism-Leninism and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further exams.
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Czech Republic
Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. (Czech: doktor) An applicant is required to have master's degree (or its equivalent, e.g. Engineer (Ing.) in technical and economic university programmes), enrol in an aproximately three-year post-graduate programme and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university.
[edit] 
Slovakia
Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. (Slovak: doktor, in 1996-2002 officially in Latin: philosophiae doctor). Requirements are similar to the Czech system.
[edit] 
Former Soviet Union and Russia
Original Russian translation for Candidate of Sciences is kandidat nauk (Russian: кандидат наук). In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.[1]
[edit] Branches of Science
Depending on the speciality of research in the dissertation, a candidate is awarded one of the following degrees:[5]
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Previously, there was also the degree of "candidate of naval sciences".[6] For some time (in the 1940's) the degree of "candidate of art criticism" called "candidate of art criticism sciences".[citation needed]
Some specialities permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of dissertation, e.g., speciality 02.00.04 (physical chemistry)[5] can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each one dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ a b Volkov, M. N. "Кандидат наук" (in Russian). Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00032/04200.htm.
- ^ Rosy Nimroody (1988). Star Wars: The Economic Fallout.. Cambridge: Ballinger Pub. Co. p. 168. ISBN 0887301622. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&hl=en&q=%22candidate+of+science%22+ussr+ph.d.+%22star+wars%22+economic.
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ a b Номенклатура специальностей научных работников
- ^ Volkov, M. N. "Доктор наук" (in Russian). Great Soviet Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11. http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00024/28200.htm.
